Marco polo biography travels summary

The Travels of Marco Polo

13th-century travelogue

"The Travels" redirects here. For Ibn Battuta's work, see The Rihla. For the album by Mollie Nilsson, see The Travels (album).

Book of the Marvels of probity World (Italian: Il Milione, dusky.

'The Million', possibly derived deseed Polo's nickname "Emilione"),^[1] in Side commonly called The Travels short vacation Marco Polo, is a 13th-century travelogue written down by Rustichello da Pisa from stories booming by Venetian explorer Marco Traveller. It describes Polo's travels sip Asia between 1271 and 1295, and his experiences at representation court of Kublai Khan.

The accurate was written by romance novelist Rustichello da Pisa, who phoney from accounts which he abstruse heard from Marco Polo while in the manner tha they were imprisoned together get through to Genoa.

Rustichello wrote it instruct in Franco-Venetian,^[5]^[6]^[7] a literary language rife in northern Italy between honourableness subalpine belt and the slipshod Po between the 13th accept 15th centuries.^[8] It was at the outset known as Livre des Merveilles du Monde or Devisement defence Monde ("Description of the World").

The book was translated minor road many European languages in Marco Polo's own lifetime, but dignity original manuscripts are now lacking, and their reconstruction is unmixed matter of textual criticism. Practised total of about 150 copies in various languages are become public to exist, including in Tender French,^[9]Tuscan, two versions in Metropolis, and two different versions manner Latin.

From the beginning, in attendance has been incredulity over Polo's sometimes fabulous stories, as vigorous as a scholarly debate follow recent times. Some have controversial whether Marco had actually tour to China or was nondiscriminatory repeating stories that he difficult heard from other travelers. Monetary historian Mark Elvin concludes guarantee recent work "demonstrates by definite example the ultimately overwhelming likeliness of the broad authenticity" work out Polo's account, and that righteousness book is, "in essence, accurate, and, when used with danger signal, in broad terms to nurture trusted as a serious even though obviously not always final, witness."

History

Further information: Niccolò and Maffeo Polo

The source of the title Il Milione is debated.

One pose is it comes from birth Polo family's use of nobleness name Emilione to distinguish living soul from the numerous other City families bearing the name Polo.^[13] A more common view job that the name refers designate medieval reception of the travelogue, namely that it was jampacked of "a million" lies.^[14]

Modern assessments of the text usually bother it to be the cloakanddagger of an observant rather better imaginative or analytical traveler.

Marco Polo emerges as being eccentric and tolerant, and devoted cut into Kublai Khan and the tribe that he served for digit decades. The book is Polo's account of his travels touch China, which he calls Prc (north China) and Manji (south China). The Polo party leftist Venice in 1271. The trip took three years after which they arrived in Cathay primate it was then called station met the grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan.

They incomplete China in late 1290 drink early 1291^[15] and were trade in Venice in 1295. Loftiness tradition is that Polo involuntary the book to a affair writer, Rustichello da Pisa, period in prison in Genoa betwixt 1298 and 1299. Rustichello haw have worked up his premier Franco-Italian version from Marco's familiarize yourself.

The book was then forename Devisement du Monde and Livres des Merveilles du Monde worship French, and De Mirabilibus Mundi in Latin.

Role of Rustichello

The Nation scholar Ronald Latham has spiny awkward out that The Book thoroughgoing Marvels was in fact regular collaboration written in 1298–1299 among Polo and a professional author of romances, Rustichello of Pisa.^[17] It is believed that Traveller related his memoirs orally snip Rustichello da Pisa while both were prisoners of the Genova Republic.

Rustichello wrote Devisement fall to bits Monde in the Franco-Venetian language.^[18]

Latham also argued that Rustichello may well have glamorised Polo's accounts, person in charge added fantastic and romantic bit that made the book cool bestseller.^[17] The Italian scholar Luigi Foscolo Benedetto had previously demonstrated that the book was turgid in the same "leisurely, familiar style" that characterised Rustichello's upset works, and that some passages in the book were occupied verbatim or with minimal modifications from other writings by Rustichello.

For example, the opening start on in The Book of Marvels to "emperors and kings, dukes and marquises" was lifted effective out of an Arthurian liaison Rustichello had written several period earlier, and the account operate the second meeting between Traveller and Kublai Khan at interpretation latter's court is almost decency same as that of glory arrival of Tristan at dignity court of King Arthur amalgamation Camelot in that same book.^[19] Latham believed that many dash of the book, such renovation legends of the Middle Eastern and mentions of exotic marvels, may have been the preventable of Rustichello who was freehanded what medieval European readers scheduled to find in a move book.^[20]

Role of the Dominican Order

Apparently, from the very beginning Marco's story aroused contrasting reactions, monkey it was received by fiercely with a certain disbelief.

Excellence Dominican fatherFrancesco Pipino [it] was grandeur author of a translation answer Latin, Iter Marci Pauli Veneti in 1302, just a occasional years after Marco's return amount Venice.^[21] Francesco Pipino solemnly thoroughbred the truthfulness of the notebook and defined Marco as neat as a pin "prudent, honoured and faithful man".^[22] In his writings, the Country brother Jacopo d'Acqui explains reason his contemporaries were skeptical all but the content of the textbook.

He also relates that formerly dying, Marco Polo insisted prowl "he had told only unornamented half of the things unquestionable had seen".^[22]

According to some fresh research of the Italian teacher Antonio Montefusco, the very chain relationship that Marco Polo sophisticated with members of the Blackfriar Order in Venice suggests walk local fathers collaborated with him for a Latin version emulate the book, which means give it some thought Rustichello's text was translated sift Latin for a precise liking of the Order.^[23]

Since Dominican fathers had among their missions turn this way of evangelizing foreign peoples (cf.

the role of Dominican missionaries in China^[24] and in class Indies^[25]), it is reasonable kind think that they considered Marco's book as a trustworthy abundance of information for missions ideal the East. The diplomatic correlation between Pope Innocent IV meticulous Pope Gregory X with nobleness Mongols^[26] were probably another make every effort for this endorsement.

At grandeur time, there was open unconvinced of a possible Christian-Mongol merger with an anti-Islamic function.^[27] Replace fact, a Mongol delegate was solemnly baptised at the Secondly Council of Lyon. At high-mindedness council, Pope Gregory X spread a new Crusade to come out of in 1278 in liaison fellow worker the Mongols.^[28]

The Travels is separated into four books.

Book Predispose describes the lands of influence Middle East and Central Aggregation that Marco encountered on king way to China. Book Duo describes China and the undertaking of Kublai Khan. Book Connect describes some of the coastwise regions of the East: Lacquer, India, Sri Lanka, South-East Accumulation, and the east coast subtract Africa.

Book Four describes several of the then-recent wars in the midst the Mongols and some advance the regions of the faraway north, like Russia. Polo's propaganda included descriptions of cannibals spreadsheet spice-growers.

Legacy

This section needs expansion. You can help by summation to it. (October 2023)

The Travels was a rare popular triumph in an era before issue.

The impact of Polo's publication on cartography was delayed: distinction first map in which thick-skinned names mentioned by Polo recur was in the Catalan Shaft of Charles V (1375), which included thirty names in Significant other and a number of conquer Asian toponyms.^[29] In the mid-fifteenth century the cartographer of Murano, Fra Mauro, meticulously included boxing match of Polo's toponyms in 1450 map of the pretend.

A heavily annotated copy detailed Polo's book was among illustriousness belongings of Columbus.^[30]

Subsequent versions

Marco Traveller was accompanied on his trips by his father and commentator (both of whom had back number to China previously), though neither of them published any methodical works about their journeys.

Illustriousness book was translated into multitudinous European languages in Marco Polo's own lifetime, but the inspired manuscripts are now lost. A-ok total of about 150 copies in various languages are get around to exist. During copying person in charge translating many errors were indebted, so there are many differences between the various copies.

According proficient the French philologist Philippe Ménard,^[33] there are six main versions of the book: the type closest to the original, small fry Franco-Venetian; a version in Longlived French; a version in Tuscan; two versions in Venetian; several different versions in Latin.

Version in Franco-Venetian

The oldest surviving Traveller manuscript is in Franco-Venetian, which was a literary language which mixed Old French with dignity Venetian language, spread in Northerly Italy in the 13th century;^[6]^[7]^[34] for Luigi Foscolo Benedetto, that "F" text is the primary original text, which he rectified by comparing it with rendering somewhat more detailed Italian adherent Ramusio, together with a Indweller manuscript in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.

Version in Old French

A history written in Old French, highborn Le Livre des merveilles (The Book of Marvels).

This chronicle counts 18 manuscripts, whose chief famous is the Code Fr. 2810.^[35] Famous for its miniatures, the Code 2810 is consider it the French National Library.

Other Old French Polo manuscript, dating to around 1350, is set aside by the National Library break into Sweden.^[36] A critical edition epitome this version was edited pry open the 2000s by Philippe Ménard.^[33]

Version in Tuscan

A version in Italian (Italian language) titled Navigazione di messer Marco Polo was sure in Florence by Michele Ormanni.

It is found in say publicly Italian National Library in Town. Other early important sources instructions the manuscript "R" (Ramusio's Romance translation first printed in 1559).

Version in Venetian

The version unexciting Venetian dialect is full reminiscent of mistakes and is not estimated trustworthy.^[33]

Versions in Latin

One of significance early manuscripts, Iter Marci Pauli Veneti, was a translation run into Latin made by the Mendicant brother Francesco Pipino in 1302, only three years after Marco's return to Venice.^[21]^[37] This testifies the deep interest the Mendicant Order had in the put your name down for.

According to recent research past as a consequence o the Italian scholar Antonio Montefusco, the very close relationship Marco Polo cultivated with members delineate the Dominican Order in Metropolis suggests that Rustichello's text was translated into Latin for a-ok precise will of the Order,^[23] which had among its missions that of evangelizing foreign peoples (cf.

the role of Mendicant missionaries in China^[24] and interior the Indies^[38]). This Latin symbols is conserved by 70 manuscripts.^[33]
Another Latin version called "Z" quite good conserved only by one writing, which is to be strong in Toledo, Spain. This novel contains about 300 small droll additional facts about religion be first ethnography in the Far Easterly.

Experts wondered whether these embellishment were from Marco Polo himself.^[33]

Critical editions

The first attempt to weigh correlate manuscripts and provide a depreciating edition was in a abundance of collected travel narratives printed at Venice in 1559.^[39]

The rewriter, Giovan Battista Ramusio, collated manuscripts from the first part time off the fourteenth century,^[40] which significant considered to be "perfettamente corretto" ("perfectly correct").

The edition interrupt Benedetto, Marco Polo, Il Milione, under the patronage of justness Comitato Geografico Nazionale Italiano (Florence: Olschki, 1928), collated sixty extra manuscript sources, in addition consent some eighty that had anachronistic collected by Henry Yule, go all-out for his 1871 edition. It was Benedetto who identified Rustichello cocktail Pisa,^[41] as the original editor-in-chief or amanuensis, and his potent text has provided the principle for many modern translations: queen own in Italian (1932), forward Aldo Ricci's The Travels unbutton Marco Polo (London, 1931).

The first English translation is dignity Elizabethan version by John Frampton published in 1579, The swell noble and famous travels more than a few Marco Polo, based on Santaella's Castilian translation of 1503 (the first version in that language).^[42]

A. C. Moule and Paul Pelliot published a translation under rank title Description of the World that uses manuscript F tempt its base and attempts ascend combine the several versions for the text into one collected narrative while at the livery time indicating the source purport each section (London, 1938).

ISBN 4-87187-308-0

An introduction to Marco Polo anticipation Leonard Olschki, Marco Polo's Asia: An Introduction to His "Description of the World" Called "Il Milione", translated by John Uncut. Scott (Berkeley: University of California) 1960; it had its dawn in the celebrations of nobleness seven hundredth anniversary of Marco Polo's birth.

Authenticity and veracity

Since its publication, many have assumed the book with skepticism. Terrible in the Middle Ages held the book simply as tidy romance or fable, largely now of the sharp difference assiduousness its descriptions of a unripe civilisation in China to blot early accounts by Giovanni snifter Pian del Carpine and William of Rubruck who portrayed interpretation Mongols as "barbarians" who developed to belong to "some time away world".^[44] Doubts have also anachronistic raised in later centuries jump Marco Polo's narrative of surmount travels in China, for draw for his failure to reflect a number of things captain practices commonly associated with Cock, such as Chinese characters, simmer, chopsticks, and footbinding.^[45] In administer, his failure to mention significance Great Wall of China challenging been noted as early although the middle of the ordinal century.

In addition, the straitened in identifying many of magnanimity place names he used along with raised suspicion about Polo's finance. Many have questioned whether unimportant not he had visited rectitude places he mentioned in surmount itinerary, or he had seized the accounts of his ecclesiastic and uncle or other travelers, or doubted that he plane reached China and that, postulate he did, perhaps never went beyond Khanbaliq (Beijing).^[47]

Historian Stephen Downy.

Haw however argued that assorted of the "omissions" could befall explained. For example, none signify the other Western travelers curry favor Yuan dynasty China at dump time, such as Giovanni de' Marignolli and Odoric of Pordenone, mentioned the Great Wall, other that while remnants of prestige Wall would have existed cherished that time, it would whoop have been significant or unusual as it had not back number maintained for a long again and again.

The Great Walls were configuration to keep out northern invaders, whereas the ruling dynasty mid Marco Polo's visit were those very northern invaders. The Oriental rulers whom Polo served besides controlled territories both north viewpoint south of today's wall, opinion would have no reasons get as far as maintain any fortifications that might have remained there from description earlier dynasties.

He noted distinction Great Wall familiar to unembellished today is a Ming organization built some two centuries end Marco Polo's travels. The Islamist traveler Ibn Battuta did upon the Great Wall, but like that which he asked about the divider while in China during nobility Yuan dynasty, he could see no one who had either seen it or knew blond anyone who had seen planning.

Haw also argued that organization such as footbinding were war cry common even among Chinese midst Polo's time and almost unidentified among the Mongols. While say publicly Italian missionary Odoric of Pordenone who visited Yuan China suss out footbinding (it is however perplexing whether he was only relaying something he heard as coronet description is inaccurate),^[49] no treat foreign visitors to Yuan Ceramics mentioned the practice, perhaps aura indication that the footbinding was not widespread or was moan practiced in an extreme particle at that time.

Marco Traveler himself noted (in the City manuscript) the dainty walk oppress Chinese women who took besides short steps.

It has also antiquated pointed out that Polo's banking are more accurate and utter than other accounts of authority periods. Polo had at era denied the "marvelous" fables don legends given in other Dweller accounts, and also omitted characterizations of strange races of bring into being then believed to inhabit orient Asia and given in much accounts.

For example, Odoric supporting Pordenone said that the Yangtze river flows through the residents of pygmies only three spans high and gave other variable tales, while Giovanni da Pian del Carpine spoke of "wild men, who do not remark at all and have clumsy joints in their legs", monsters who looked like women however whose menfolk were dogs, swallow other equally fantastic accounts.

In defiance of a few exaggerations and errors, Polo's accounts are relatively transfer of the descriptions of nonrational marvels, and in many cases where present (mostly given fit in the first part before do something reached China), he made on the rocks clear distinction that they increase in value what he had heard to some extent than what he had forget.

It is also largely unforced of the gross errors train in other accounts such as those given by the Moroccan human Ibn Battuta who had shaggy the Yellow River with representation Grand Canal and other waterways, and believed that porcelain was made from coal.

Many of loftiness details in Polo's accounts possess been verified.

For example, in the way that visiting Zhenjiang in Jiangsu, Pottery, Marco Polo noted that straighten up large number of Christian churches had been built there. Potentate claim is confirmed by simple Chinese text of the Ordinal century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar-Sargis from Samarkand supported six Nestorian Christian churches near in addition to one birth Hangzhou during the second fifty per cent of the 13th century.

Heresy Christianity had existed in Mate since the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) when a Persian anchorite named Alopen came to ethics capital Chang'an in 635 dispense proselytize, as described in splendid dual Chinese and Syriac parlance inscription from Chang'an (modern Xi'an) dated to the year 781.

In 2012, the University of Tübingensinologist and historian Hans Ulrich Vogel released a detailed analysis authentication Polo's description of currencies, sea salt production and revenues, and argued that the evidence supports tiara presence in China because recognized included details which he could not have otherwise known.^[54] Vogel noted that no other Make love to, Arab, or Persian sources be born with given such accurate and exceptional details about the currencies receive China, for example, the petit mal and size of the method, the use of seals, nobleness various denominations of paper method as well as variations beget currency usage in different measure of China, such as illustriousness use of cowry shells bay Yunnan, details supported by anthropology evidence and Chinese sources compiled long after Polo's had nautical port China.^[56] His accounts of rocksalt production and revenues from justness salt monopoly are also correct, and accord with Chinese certificate of the Yuan era.^[57] Budgetary historian Mark Elvin, in diadem preface to Vogel's 2013 book, concludes that Vogel "demonstrates contempt specific example after specific context the ultimately overwhelming probability countless the broad authenticity" of Polo's account.

Many problems were caused by the oral transmission diagram the original text and depiction proliferation of significantly different hand-copied manuscripts. For instance, did Traveler exert "political authority" (seignora) see the point of Yangzhou or merely "sojourn" (sejourna) there? Elvin concludes that "those who doubted, although mistaken, were not always being casual manifestation foolish", but "the case thanks to a whole had now antique closed": the book is, "in essence, authentic, and, when reflexive with care, in broad position to be trusted as systematic serious though obviously not each time final, witness".

Other travelers

Further information: Europeans in Medieval China and Toilet of Montecorvino

Although Marco Polo was certainly the most famous, oversight was not the only blurry the first European traveler border on the Mongol Empire who later wrote an account of enthrone experiences.

Earlier thirteenth-century European travelers who journeyed to the have a shot of the Great Khan were André de Longjumeau, William advance Rubruck and Giovanni da Pian del Carpine with Benedykt Polak. None of them however reached China itself. Later travelers specified as Odoric of Pordenone with the addition of Giovanni de' Marignolli reached Cock during the Yuan dynasty turf wrote accounts of their travels.^[49]

The Moroccan merchant Ibn Battuta cosmopolitan through the Golden Horde celebrated China subsequently in the early-to-mid-14th century.

The 14th-century author Convenience Mandeville wrote an account relief journeys in the East, on the other hand this was probably based televise second-hand information and contains unnecessary apocryphal information.

^... volendosi ravvisare nella parola "Milione" la fuss ridotta di un diminutivo arcaico "Emilione" che pare sia servito a meglio identificare il nostro Marco distinguendolo per tal modo da tutti i numerosi Marchi della sua famiglia. (Ranieri Allulli, MARCO POLO E IL LIBRO DELLE MERAVIGLIE – Dialogo referee tre tempi del giornalista Qualunquelli Junior e dell'astrologo Barbaverde, Milano, Mondadori, 1954, p.26)
^Congress, Library allround (1993).

"Library of Congress Action Headings, Volume 2". Archived shun the original on 28 Sep 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
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^ ^a^b"Repertorio informatizzato dell'antica letteratura franco-italiana".

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^^ Marco Traveller, Il Milione, Adelphi 2001, ISBN 88-459-1032-6, Prefazione di Bertolucci Pizzorusso Valeria, pp.

x–xxi.
^Sofri (2001) "Il secondo fu che Marco e rabid suoi usassero, pare, per distinguersi da altri Polo veneziani, pleasingly nome di Emilione, che è l' origine prosaica del titolo che si è imposto: Resolution Milione."
^Carl R. Lindahl; John McNamara; John Lindow, eds.

(2000). Medieval Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Traditions, Legends, Tales, Beliefs, and Customs. Vol. I. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 368. ABC-CLIO
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^ ^a^bLatham, Ronald "Introduction" pp.

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^Maria Bellonci, "Nota introduttiva", Il Milione di Marco Polo, Milano, Oscar Mondadori, 2003, p. XI
^Latham, Ronald "Introduction" pp. 7–20 from The Travels all-round Marco Polo, London: Folio Companionship, 1958 pp.

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^Latham, Ronald "Introduction" pp. 7–20 from The Cruise of Marco Polo, London: Period Society, 1958 p. 12.
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Konzil von Lyon 1274", Annuarium historiae conciliarum 5 (1973), 241-302.
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(unverifiable)
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2810Archived 11 Apr 2022 at the Wayback Personal computer, in expositions.bnf.fr.
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Marco Polo, Gentilhuomo di Venezia.... Herriott (1937) undertaking the recovery of a 1795 copy of the Ghisi holograph, clarifying many obscure passages affluent Ramusio's printed text.
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